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A 3,000-year-old Egyptian papyrus is being reassessed in the wake of a raft of claims accusing powerful men of rape and sexual assault.
It describes a litany of morally corrupt actions by the chief master craftsmen Paneb, who oversaw construction work on the pharaohs' tombs in the Valley of the Kings.
Among them are attacks on and the 'debauching' of a string of women in Thebes in 1200 BC, now within the modern Egyptian city of Luxor.
Experts are revisiting the text, contained on a script known as Papyrus Salt 124 held by the British Museum, to examine ancient cultural attitudes to sexual politics.
They believe it could be one of the first ever records of a man being fire for sexual assault.
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A 3,000 year old ancient Egyptian papyrus is being reassessed in the wake of a litany of powerful men being accused of sexual assault. It describes a litany of morally corrupt actions by the chief master craftsmen Paneb, who oversaw construction on the Valley of the Kings
Among the experts analysing the text is Brooklyn-based historian Carly Silver, who outlines the tale on digital publishing platform Narrative.ly.
She says that the 'astonishing' legal record shows that men using their power to hurt women is a tale as old as time.
Writing on the site, she added: 'Amennakht accused his archrival Paneb of stealing his job, taking goods from the temples and royal tombs, damaging sacred ground, lying under oath, assaulting nine men in one night, borrowing royal workers for his own use, and committing adultery with local housewives.
'Even allowing for bias in Amennakht's complaint, it was a remarkable accusation. It might be the oldest recorded instance of a party lodging accusations of sexual misconduct as grounds for dismissal, meaning that over 3,000 years after it was written, it is relevant like never before.
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'Even more interesting than what's in the document is what is left out — namely, the question of consent — which raises fascinating questions not just about ancient Egypt but about the modern world as well.'
The story of Paneb - dubbed a 'bad boy' of ancient Egypt by some historians - is not new, first making its way to the British Museum in one of the collections of early 19th century Egyptologist Henry Salt.
An English translation of the papyrus by Czech Egyptologist Jaroslav Cerny in 1929 revealed the true extent of the Paneb' s alleged crimes, prompting historians to take the manuscript seriously for the first time.
The complaint was made by a man named Amennakht, a colleague of Paneb, and addressed to Vizier Hori, the highest official in ancient Egypt during the reign of Sethi II, Siptah, Tawosret, Setnakhte and Ramesses III.
The story of Paneb is not new, first making its way to the British Museum thanks to early 19th century Egyptologist Henry Salt, depicted in this 1815 painting by artist John James Halls, but it is being revisited to examine ancient cultural attitudes to sexual politics
It relates to the conduct of the chief workman in the village of Deir el Medina, a community of artisans.
Paneb is said to have obtained what was meant to be Amennakht's inherited position by bribing the vizier.
The names of numerous women Paneb allegedly assaulted or had adulterous relationships with, appearing as a single crime on the document, are also listed.
Ambiguities in the text mean its unclear exactly what Paneb did with many of these women, but in one case it is said that he stripped a local woman named Yeyemwaw, throwing her against a wall before raping her.
Paneb's own son Aapehty swore an oath to Amennakht's, listing examples of his father's 'debauchery', including one in which Aapehty took part.
It relates to the conduct of the chief workman in the village of Deir el Medina (pictured), a community of artisans. Among his crimes are the assault and 'debauching' of a string of women in Thebes in 1200 BC, ruins now within the modern Egyptian city of Luxor
'I no longer wish to put up with him!' Aapehty is quoted as saying on the papyrus.
Speaking to The Independent, Rowland Enmarch, senior lecturer of Egyptology at the University of Liverpool, told the site that the ancient Egyptians considered adultery 'morally reprehensible'.
'Sleeping with married women, whether they wanted to or not, was a no-no, and particularly taking them by force just makes it worse,' he said.
Paneb was 'probably put to death eventually', Mr Enmarch said, which 'may have had something to do with filching materials from the royal tombs' – an even more serious offence.
'I'm not sure sexual misdemeanours were necessarily capital offences, whereas stealing from the King was,' he added.
WHAT IS THE VALLEY OF THE KINGS?
The Valley of the Kings in upper Egypt is one of the country's main tourist attractions, situated next to the Giza pyramid complex.
The majority of the pharaohs of the 18th to 20th dynasties, who ruled from 1550 to 1069 BC, rested in the tombs which were cut into the local rock.
The royal tombs are decorated with scenes from Egyptian mythology and give clues as to the beliefs and funerary rituals of the period.
Almost all of the tombs were opened and looted centuries ago, but the sites still give an idea of the opulence and power of the Pharaohs.
The majority of the pharaohs of the 18th to 20th dynasties, who ruled from 1550 to 1069 BC, rested in the tombs which were cut into the local rock. Pictured are godess statues in the valley
The most famous pharaoh at the site is Tutankhamen, whose tomb was discovered in 1922.
Preserved to this day, in the tomb are original decorations of sacred imagery from, among others, the Book of Gates or the Book of Caverns.
These are among the most important funeral texts found on the walls of ancient Egyptian tombs.
The Valley of the Kings in upper Egypt is one of the country's main tourist attractions, situated next to the Giza pyramid complex
